Brief Overview of Research Findings on a Child Victim’s Exposure to Domestic Violence
Today, the goal of ending domestic violence and supporting victims is more of a mainstream public policy issue. The resistance to social change that earmarked the early years of the movement’s history is no longer viewed as acceptable by the public at large. Public opinion and awareness about domestic violence issues is increasing, but the domestic violence prevention community is well aware that constant vigilance is essential.
Unfortunately, relatively little attention has been paid to the immediate and long-term emotional and psychological needs of children who are exposed to family and domestic violence. Although there is substantial research delineating how male and female children are harmed by exposure to domestic violence, there are limited opportunities for victims to receive guidance and training to protect these vulnerable children and teens. Professional counseling and related supportive services can may be an effective solution, but they may unaffordable or unavailable to many current or prospective victims. The Make It End Here project is designed to supplement and not supplant these professional services wherever they are available.
Scope of the Problem: Although most people define domestic violence as involving acts or threats of physical violence, this project defines it more broadly. It also encompasses non-physical violence, such as psychological and emotional abuse. This broader definition reflects the reality that batterers and abusers may engage in multiple forms of violent or abusive behavior to exert power and control over victims and their children. For example, they may threaten to commit suicide or may threaten or actually destroy property or harm pets or livestock. Depending on the family’s circumstances,these non-violent forms of abuse may be equally or even more harmful.
Risk Factors and Behavioral Profiles: Research has found that children raised in homes where domestic violence is prevalent are at increased risk of becoming victims of physical violence and child abuse and neglect. A child’s exposure to the father abusing the mother is the strongest risk factor for transmitting violent behavior from one generation to the next. (1)
Even if parents or intimate partners believe they are “hiding” their behavior, the overwhelming majority of child victims are aware that their parents are in conflict and that they are powerless to intervene. They hear the screaming, see the physical injuries, and sense the tension and agitation that lingers in the wake of violence and abuse.
Children who witness domestic violence exhibit behavioral, somatic, and emotional problems identical to physically abused children .(2) Boys become aggressive, fight with siblings and schoolmates, and engage in temper tantrums. Girls tend to become passive, clinging, and withdrawn. (3) Over 90 percent of children living in violent homes observe violence inflicted by their Fathers against their Mothers and males who witness such abuse are twice more likely to abuse their own wives.(4)
Child victims who grow up with domestic violence learn powerful and long-lasting lessons about the use of intimidation and force in relationships. Indeed, they may have no real understanding about growing up in a “normal” home. Living with violence and abuse teaches them that aggression, violence, and threats are acceptable behaviors.(5) Of course, these do not translate into socially acceptable behaviors, but child victims tend to view others from that jagged prism and react to the behavior of others with distrust or aggression.
Most child victims express their distress about domestic violence in differing ways according to their age. Infants 
and kindergarten-age children believe they are responsible for domestic violence and express guilt, worry, and anxiety, School age children may share those reactions and also exhibit a variety of other negative responses and behaviors. Moreover, their emotional attachment to either the victim or the perpetrator intensifies the damage .(6) Witnessing actual physical violence against a parent generates the strongest negative reactions.(7)
Exposure to domestic violence causes other behavioral reactions such as bed-wetting, insomnia, and other health-related problems. Even if the mother escapes and finds emergency shelter, the harm may be nearly irreparable. More than one-half of school-age children in shelters exhibit clinical levels of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.(8) As they move toward pre-adolescence, these children may suffer even more severe symptoms such as depression, anxiety, loss of interest in social activities, and low self-esteem.
Adolescents tend to be more abstract in their thinking and are more likely to verbally express their reactions to domestic violence. However, they may be unable to resolve their problems without intervention or professional counseling, particularly where there is persistent and pervasive violence and abuse. They tend to be mislabeled as a “problem” teen and are at increased risk of academic failure, dropping out of school, delinquency, alcohol and substance abuse, suicidal tendencies, gang activity, and committing sexual assault crimes.(9) Many professionals believe that a history of domestic violence is the most significant difference between delinquent and non-delinquent youth.
Other Risks of Victimization: Child victims are also subject to other types of violence and abuse with equally devastating consequences, including becoming the victims of physical violence and child abuse and neglect. One study found that 50 percent of men who frequently assault their intimate partners also physically abused their children. (10) Another found that child maltreatment occurs in 45 to 70 percent of homes with domestic violence. (11)
In addition, collateral damage arising in violent and abusive homes includes higher incidents of child abuse and neglect. It can be traced to households in turmoil because domestic violence diminishes or impairs a victim’s ability to adequately parent and protect their children. Most reports of child abuse and neglect are filed against mothers and it has been found that the battering of these victims usually predates child abuse and neglect. (12)
Domestic violence may also be a precursor for the sexual abuse of female children. In cases where the father abuses the mother, girls and female adolescents are exposed to sexual abuse at a rate 6.51 times greater than children in non-abusive homes. (13) About two-thirds of all abused children are being parented by battered women who, in turn, are three times more likely to have been sexually abused by their own fathers. (14)
Even if these severe forms of abuse are not manifested within the family, domestic violence victims may be so impaired in dealing with violence or abuse that they may not recognize or fully appreciate how their childrens’ and teens’ future behavior is being affected. The parent-child relationship has been found to be deeply affected when a mother is dealing with the physical and mental health aspects of being battered. (15)
Parents who live with constant fear simply may be emotionally unavailable or unresponsive to the needs of their children. (16) The conflicting emotions and daily problems in finding housing, legal assistance, and financial resources makes it difficult to be empathetic to children exposed to domestic violence.
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Experts in this field have determined that the infliction of even a single instance of severe physical violence or exposure repeated or prolonged exposure to violence and abuse may cause either victims or their children to show symptoms of PTSD. School age children are particularly vulnerable because they are at critical formative stages of development for overall functioning, attitudes, social competence, and school performance. Statistically, these children are more likely to become domestic violence victims or adults who abuse or neglect their own children.(17)
Exposure to domestic violence is inherently conflicting for today’s boys and young male teens. The traditional socialization process for males teaches them that protecting their families from harm is a fundamental responsibility. Yet, observing violence and abuse inflicted upon their Mother or siblings forces them to choose either to somehow intervene or acquiesce to the batterer. The first option is dangerous and may result in severe retaliation, while the latter may permanently isolate them from their mother and cause them to consciously or subconsciously believe that violence and abuse is socially acceptable behavior in both intimate partner and family relationships.
Conversely, early intervention efforts that educates them about domestic violence and teaches them how to partner with their Mother in dealing with victimization, enhances their prospects for survival as a healthy, mature, and non-abusive adult. The Make It End Here Project can serve as the starting point for self-education, as well as a reference tool for family, friends, teachers, and others who may wish to help victims and their sons initiate this growth process.
CONCLUSION: The Make It End Here Project website is designed to function as a centralized forum of information about the issues associated with a child’s exposure to domestic violence. Reading about the ways in which children are at-risk of permanent harm may also help adult “survivors” how and why their adult relationships and behaviors may have been influenced by domestic violence. Many may be persuaded to seek professional counseling to address many of these unresolved issues and behaviors. They may not be aware that they may have not, in fact. successfully survived their childhood abuse.
As The Make It End Here Project continues to grow and expand, we will post more detailed summaries of specific research topics to shed more light on the problems associated with domestic violence exposure. You will have access to:
Summaries and Links to current research;
Interactive self-assessment tools;
Behavioral profiles of batterers and abusers and child victims at various age groups;
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) about domestic violence;
Email newsletters;
Downloadable educational materials and brochures;
News articles, project reports, and press releases;
Links to this website blog; and
Links to local domestic violence agencies and programs.
The project will also enable you to utilize on-line training programs that will outline model strategies for Mothers to engage their Sons about coping with and surviving a violent and abusive home. As these Mothers learn how to teach their Sons about domestic violence, the dynamics of Father-Son and Mother-Son relationships, and the socialization process for young males, they will understand that violence and abuse are learned behaviorsand that they can truly choose to make different life choices.
Research Citations
1. “Violence and the Family: Report of the American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Violence and the Family,” 1996.
2. Jaffe, Wolfe, and Wilson, 1990.
3. Hilberman and Munson, 1977-78.
4. Pagelow, 1990; Walker, 1994; Strauss, Gelles,and Smith, 1990; Rosenbaum and O’Leary, 1981.
5. Groves and Augustyn, 2004.
6. Pynoos and Eth, 1986; Groves, Zuckerman, Marana, and Cohen, 1993; Zuckerman et al., 1996;
7. Osofsky, Fick, Flowers, and Lewis, 1995.
8. Graham-Bermann and Seng, 2005; Graham-Bermann, 1994.
9. Wolfe, Wekerle, Reitzel, and Gough, 1995; Stith and Strauss, 1995; Parsons, 1994; Prothrow-Stith, 1991.
10. Straus, 1992.
11. Foley, Berns, Test, Braff, & Schechter, 2000; American Humane Association, 1995.
12.Stark and Flitcraft, 1988.
13.Child Welfare Project, 1995; Bowker, Arbitell, & McFerron, 1988.F
14.McKay, 1994).
15.Wolfe, Jaffe, Wilson, & Zak, 1985.
16. Augustyn, Parker, Groves, & Zuckerman, 1995; Zuckerman, et al., 1995.
17. Bell, 1995; Margolin, 1995; American Bar Assn.,1994; Bell and Jenkins, 1991; Jaffe, Wolfe, & Zak, 1986.